Wars and Battles
Declaration of Independence
July 4, 1776

In early 1776, American public opinion was deeply divided over the issue of declaring independence from Britain. A discernible drift toward independence was occurring, but the publication of Thomas Paine’s Common Sense and news of King George III’s decision to hire foreign mercenary soldiers to fight in America radicalized the views of many.

On May 10, the Continental Congress adopted a resolution that urged the states to form their own independent governments to replace the defunct royal governments. Despite this action, opinion remained divided over the wisdom of having Congress itself make a statement of independence.

In June, Virginia delegate Richard Henry Lee brought three resolutions before the delegates:

1. A statement of independence that concluded with the words, "These United Colonies are, and of right ought to be, free and independent States."
2. A suggestion that Congress begin the establishment of formal diplomatic relations with other nations.
3. A proposal that Congress begin the planning of a confederation to govern the 13 states.

The resolutions appeared to enjoy strong support, but conservatives continued to hope for reconciliation and delayed action. Before a temporary adjournment, committees were appointed to draft supporting statements. The independence issue was assigned to Robert Livingston of New York, Benjamin Franklin of Pennsylvania, Roger Sherman of Connecticut, John Adams of Massachusetts, and Thomas Jefferson of Virginia, the only Southerner.

On July 2, after protracted debate, 12 of the states voted in favor of Lee’s first resolution; only the New York delegation ¹ abstained, since it had not received instructions from home. Two days later, July 4, the Congress approved the final version of the declaration presented by the committee. It was signed by John Hancock, president of the Congress, and Charles Thomson, the secretary.

The Declaration of Independence was largely the work of Thomas Jefferson, who at the time was more concerned about his wife's failing health and about drafting a new constitution for Virginia. Nevertheless, the final product contained only a few significant changes from Jefferson's draft. The original draft contained a condemnation of the British slave trade, but that provision was stricken at the insistence of pro-slavery delegates. Also absent in the final version was a denunciation of the British people, rather than the government.

The Declaration (see text) is composed of several parts:

• An introduction that states the reasons for embracing independence. Jefferson drew heavily on the natural rights philosophy of the English political philosopher John Locke. Governments, it was argued, had their origins in a social compact between the people and their rulers. The people were to offer their obedience in return for the governments' pledge to protect the natural rights of life, liberty and property; Jefferson, however, softened Locke's list of rights by referring to "life, liberty and the pursuit of happiness." Governments that failed to provide or protect these rights could legitimately be abolished.
• A series of indictments that justified the decision for independence. The Declaration presents a long list of charges against George III, Parliament and royal officials. Charging the king with offenses was a departure from previous positions that had excoriated the ministers and politicians, but not the monarch. Some of the complaints registered in the document may seem strange or even trivial to today's reader, but it must be remembered that the purpose of the Declaration was the molding of public opinion and not the recording of facts.
• A conclusion. Based on the long series of infractions detailed in the Declaration, the words of Richard Henry Lee were echoed, "That these United Colonies are, and of Right ought to be Free and Independent States; that they are Absolved from all Allegiance to the British Crown, and that all political connection between them and the State of Great Britain, is and ought to be totally dissolved...."

The formal signing on engrossed² parchment was accomplished by 50 delegates on August 2, 1776. One delegate signed later that month, three others in September, one in November and Thomas McKean of Delaware, not until 1781. Notable non-signers were John Dickinson and Robert Livingston.

1. The New York assembly voted on July 9 to authorize its delegates to the Congress to vote in favor of independence.

2. Engrossing is the process of having a legal document written in large, distinct letters. It appears that Timothy Matlack of Pennsylvania, who had performed this service earlier for the Congress, prepared formal engrossed versions of the Declaration.

See chronology of the American Revolution.

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